Written by David Caldwell · 3 August 2025

The History of Bonfire Night: From Gunpowder Plot to Fireworks Night

This isn’t a comforting history. It’s a reminder that behind fireworks and festivities lies a tradition soaked in persecution, propaganda, and political control. To understand Bonfire Night fully is to confront how history is weaponised, and how echoes of intolerance still flicker in the flames.

The Origin of the Word "Bonfire"

The word "bonfire" is believed to derive from the Middle English term "bonefire", literally, a fire of bones. Some sources with a preference for linguistic neatness have proposed a French origin, such as "bon" (meaning good), but older English encyclopaedias and literary references confirm the bone-burning root. Bonfires, in their earliest context, were part of pagan funeral customs or purification rituals. Fires of bones may have been lit to ward off evil, commemorate the dead, or mark seasonal transitions such as Samhain. This etymological background suggests that bonfires originally served ritualistic and ceremonial purposes before being repurposed for national celebrations and public rejoicing.

The ancient Norse word for a beacon, bál or bál-far, relates to the idea of fire used as a signal or warning. These early meanings further support the interpretation of bonfires as symbols of both spiritual and civic significance. The use of large communal fires across Europe was deeply embedded in seasonal and ritual traditions long before the term "bonfire" took on its modern associations.

Some antiquarians also argue that bonfires were once closely tied to the Celtic festival of Samhain, held on November 1st, which marked the beginning of the pagan year. This proximity to November 5th is unlikely to be a coincidence. There is a compelling theory that Protestant authorities, in an effort to erase lingering pagan traditions and suppress Catholicism, appropriated and redirected the fire festivals toward a new, state-sanctioned narrative. Bonfires, once symbolic of purification and seasonal transition, were turned into tools of propaganda and persecution, burning martyrs and effigies instead of spirits and offerings. In this sense, the flames of Bonfire Night became literal and figurative engines of religious hatred, stoking division in a fractured post-Reformation Britain.

Bonfire Night and the Gunpowder Plot

Bonfire Night, celebrated on the 5th of November in the United Kingdom, is rooted in the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605. On that day, Guy Fawkes and a group of Catholic conspirators were discovered attempting to blow up the House of Lords, intending to assassinate King James I and replace him with a Catholic monarch. The event quickly became symbolic of Protestant triumph over Catholic treason and was enshrined in law by the Observance of 5th November Act 1606.

Early Commemorations: A Religious and Political Statement

In the years following the plot, the 5th of November was marked with solemn thanksgiving services in the Church of England. The day began as a state-mandated observance, complete with sermons and prayers celebrating the king’s deliverance. Bonfires and bell-ringing were encouraged, and effigies of Guy Fawkes and the Pope were burned by enthusiastic crowds. The commemoration soon gained an overtly anti-Catholic tone.

This hostility was reinforced in a period when Catholics in England faced civil restrictions, suspicion, and legal penalties. The day’s meaning was clear: to remind each generation of the dangers posed by Catholicism. In places like London, torchlight processions, bell-ringing, and effigy burning were common well into the 18th and 19th centuries.

The Church of England formally incorporated an annual service of thanksgiving for the failure of the conspiracy into its liturgy. Known as the "Gunpowder Treason" service, it was added to the Book of Common Prayer and made compulsory attendance through the 1606 Act. However, by 1859, amid growing religious tolerance and liturgical reform, Parliament repealed the Act, and the service was removed from the Church calendar, signalling a shift in the day's religious and political significance.

Suppression, Resistance, and the Long Shadow of Intolerance

Bonfire Night’s origins cannot be separated from the broader campaign of Catholic suppression that unfolded in England after the Reformation. Catholic worship was outlawed; it became illegal to hear Mass, and harbouring a priest could lead to execution. Entire households were built with secret compartments, "priest holes", to hide clergy from authorities.

This persecution continued into the 17th century. During the English Civil War, sectarian violence became a grim reality. The Parliamentary army, under leaders like Cromwell, viewed Catholicism as not only heretical but politically dangerous. Lieutenant Archer, one of Waller’s officers, documented the massacre of Irish civilians, including women and children, following the Battle of Alton in 1643. Similar atrocities occurred at Basing House and during Cromwell’s brutal campaign in Ireland. The presence of Irish troops among Royalist ranks further inflamed anti-Catholic hatred.

Anti-Catholic sentiment was not confined to the battlefield. The Gordon Riots of 1780, a violent reaction to proposals for limited Catholic emancipation, left hundreds dead and underscored lingering hostility. It was not until the 19th century, after decades of struggle, that Catholic Emancipation was achieved. The 1829 Catholic Relief Act allowed Catholics to sit in Parliament and restored civil rights. Even so, deep societal prejudice persisted, particularly with the arrival of large numbers of Irish Catholics during and after the Great Hunger of the 1840s.

Throughout this long arc of history, Bonfire Night served as a cultural outlet for anti-Catholicism, using fire and spectacle to reinforce social division. The festival’s timing, just days after All Saints' Day, may have been deliberately chosen to overwrite or suppress older Catholic and pagan observances, replacing them with a sanctioned ritual of condemnation.

The Bonfires and Butchers of Lincoln’s Inn Fields

One of the most notorious locations for Bonfire Night celebrations in 18th and 19th-century London was Lincoln’s Inn Fields, especially the corner near Great Queen Street. Contemporary accounts describe towering fires built from 200 cartloads of fuel, drawing vast and often unruly crowds. The bonfire was so large and the festivities so chaotic that the site had to be guarded day and night on the lead-up to the Fifth to prevent disorder and safeguard nearby buildings.

A curious custom, now long vanished, added to the spectacle. As reported in a newspaper of the period:

“A curious custom of the butchers of Clare Market, long since abolished, was to chase one another round a huge bonfire, lashing out with portions of bulls they had slaughtered.”

In addition to the flames and violence, a large number of effigies or "Guys" were burned, not only of Guy Fawkes, but also of the Pope and various political figures of the day. These grotesque figures were paraded through the streets and thrown into the fire to the cheers of the crowd. The sheer volume and variety of effigies turned the event into a visceral spectacle of mockery and public condemnation.

Violence and Disorder

While initially sanctioned by church and state, the popular celebration of Bonfire Night often descended into chaos. An 1852 report described riotous behaviour that extended into the early hours, with fireworks being discharged outside homes and traders participating in the unrest. One account from that year describes drunken tradesmen lighting fireworks outside the home of a civic officer and offering bribes to tamper with gas lamps, ending only when fire engines were summoned.

In some towns, the night became an excuse for disorder, vandalism, and even physical assault. Public authorities often struggled to maintain control. By the 1850s and 1870s, newspapers were regularly publishing editorials lamenting the disorderly and outdated nature of Bonfire Night. In 1856, people were still being fined for street bonfires and fireworks in towns like Royston. A Huddersfield paper from 1876 documented numerous injuries in Birmingham caused by fireworks and bonfires.

Shifting Tone in the Victorian Era

During the late 19th century, Bonfire Night began to lose its explicitly anti-Catholic tone. Reports from 1877 and 1889 suggest that the political and religious meaning of the day was fading. One 1889 editorial argued that Guy Fawkes' Day had "ceased to have any particular meaning attached to it," and was now about burning effigies and setting off fireworks. Another, from the Southern Echo in 1891, observed that although lads with "guys" still paraded the streets asking for pennies, the practice had become more about amusement than political hostility.

This period also saw the beginning of a terminological shift, from "Guy Fawkes Night" to the more neutral "Fireworks Night." A Church of England editorial in 1879 even reflected positively on Guy Fawkes himself, calling him a man of principle and courage who stood for freedom of conscience, despite his violent methods. Such reappraisals show the softening of attitudes toward the historical figure and a desire to move beyond sectarian narratives.

Twentieth Century: From Sectarian Memory to National Festival

By the early 20th century, the political and religious roots of Bonfire Night were all but forgotten. While pockets of sectarianism persisted, such as Orange Order parades through Catholic districts in Belfast, these were increasingly the exception rather than the rule. Bonfire Night evolved into a family-oriented celebration, with fireworks, toffee apples, and funfairs becoming its central features.

An intriguing contrast can be found in Irish traditions. A separate "Bonfire Night" was celebrated on Midsummer Eve (24 June), linked to St John the Baptist, and had no connection to Guy Fawkes. This divergence highlights how regional and religious differences shaped the character of fire festivals. In fact, some antiquarians argued that November bonfires were a Christian appropriation of earlier pagan fire festivals. The Celts lit fires to mark seasonal transitions, and these customs were Christianised by the Church as part of the broader incorporation of native beliefs into the liturgical year.

A 20th-century newspaper article from the Antiquarian Society suggested that the modern Bonfire Night had absorbed elements of Samhain, the Celtic festival marking the end of harvest and the start of winter. The association of fire with purification and the warding off of spirits was retained even as the Church redirected the festival’s purpose. Eventually, the Puritan state redirected the celebration away from All Hallows' Eve and toward the politically charged anniversary of the Gunpowder Plot.

Traditional Bonfire Night Food

In addition to fireworks and effigies, traditional Bonfire Night food remains an enduring part of the celebration. One of the simplest and most evocative traditions is the baking of potatoes in foil directly in the embers of the fire, a custom fondly recalled in many local accounts. Other traditional foods include parkin (a sticky ginger cake from Northern England), black treacle toffee, toffee apples, and roasted chestnuts. In some regions, sweetened milk or pea soup was served to children gathered around the fire. These culinary traditions helped turn Bonfire Night into a community gathering rooted in warmth and shared nourishment.

Concerns in the Modern Era

While Bonfire Night is widely enjoyed, it is not without criticism. Many dread the fireworks that are sold to the public through supermarkets and other outlets. Loud and unpredictable explosions can terrify cats, dogs, and other animals, causing days of anxiety for pet owners. In urban areas, fireworks often fall into the hands of teenagers who throw them in the streets, creating a public nuisance and potential hazard. Debates continue about whether stricter controls or public-only displays might be a safer and more compassionate way to enjoy the evening.

Persistent Symbols of Hatred

Despite modern secularism and the distancing of the festival from its sectarian roots, there are occasional and troubling examples of hatred and intolerance. In 2003, an effigy of a Traveller family in a caravan was burned on a bonfire in Lewes, Sussex, prompting arrests and race-hate charges. In Northern Ireland in 2025, a bonfire in Moygashel featured an effigy of a migrant boat with mannequins in life jackets, alongside banners bearing anti-immigration slogans. These acts were widely condemned by religious leaders, civil rights groups, and political figures across the spectrum.

Such incidents demonstrate that while Bonfire Night has evolved into a largely inclusive and family-friendly event, its traditional focus on effigy-burning can still be co-opted to express bigotry. These examples serve as reminders that the ritual power of fire and public spectacle can be harnessed for division as easily as celebration.

Behind the Mask

Bonfire Night has undergone a dramatic transformation, from a sanctioned day of anti-Catholic remembrance to a largely secular celebration. Today, most Britons recognise the 5th of November as a night for fireworks and family fun, often unaware of its deeply sectarian roots. The shift from effigies and persecution to sparklers and fireworks mirrors a broader societal move away from religious intolerance toward inclusive civic festivity. Yet, understanding its origins offers a window into Britain’s complex history of religion, politics, and protest.

Despite modern secularism and attempts to sanitise its history, Bonfire Night retains a ritualistic core that sometimes resurfaces in acts of hatred and intolerance. Whether in the form of discriminatory effigies or public disorder, the embers of division occasionally reignite, reminding us that traditions must be continually re-examined to ensure they are not misused.